Ideologies and Upheavals

**aqalieh95** Tue May 24, 2011 5:39 pm

Introduction
1. Many economic and political transformations began in late 19th century with Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and French Revolution
2. Until 1815, economic and political changes were separate
  1. After 1815, economic and political changes tend to fuse (dual Revolution)
    1. growing middle class → representative government
3. Results varied
  1. Traditional elites – monarchs, noble families, etc – of eastern Europe were able to keep their privileges using nationalism and dual revolution.
4. Stimulated new ideas and powerful ideologies
  1. Conservatism
  2. Liberalism
  3. Nationalism
  4. Socialism
The Peace Settlement
1. Congress of Vienna to make peace agreement after defeat of Napoleon
2. The European Balance of Power
  1. International equilibrium of political and military force
3. Intervention and Repression
  1. Crusade against the ideas and politics
    1. Holy alliance
      - Symbol of repression of liberal and revolutionary ideas all over Europe
4. Metternich battled liberal political changes
  1. It was effective until 1848
  2. Dominated Austria, Italian peninsula, and entire German Confederation
Metternich and Conservatism
1. He was considered as a villain by progressive, optimistic historians
2. Beliefs
  1. Always remained loyal to his class and defended its rights and privileges
  2. Tradition=basic source of human institutions
  3. Feared the fall of his empire
  4. Liberalism was responsible for war and suffering
    - Liberal revolutionaries are responsible for stirring up the lower class
    - Idea of national self-determination was repellent to Metternich, threatening existence of aristocracy and destroy of Austrian Empire, and revolutionize central Europe
3. Austria was a nation with people of different ethnicities
  - They weren't able to come together as a nation
  - Metternich had to oppose nationalism and liberalism

Radical Ideas and Socialism – Rejected old, deeply felt conservatism, tradition, hereditary monarchy, landowning aristocracy, and official church

Liberalism
1. Principle idea of liberalism – Liberty + Equality
2. Demanded representative government
  1. Power to people
  2. U.S. Bill of rights was the leader of liberalism
3. Specific individual freedoms
  1. Freedom of press
  2. Freedom of speech
  3. Freedom of assembly
  4. Freedom from arbitrary arrest
4. In 1815, France and Great Britain were the only countries in Europe to adapt ideas of liberalism, although it was not fully succeeded
5. Opponents
  1. Criticized economic principles of liberalism
    - Private enterprise with no government interference
      - Laissez fair, free market (“classical” liberalism)

Free Economy

Scottish philosopher Adam Smith
- Inquiry into the nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
- He argued that free economy will result in greater income for everyone, not just rich
- He criticized 18th century mercantilism and its attempt to control economic activities

Early 19th Century

Wanted property qualifications attached to the right to vote
Liberalism became popular among the middle class
- Universal voting rights at least for males

Nationalism

Enormous influence on modern world
Real or imagined cultural unity
- Language history territory

Love of liberty → love of nation
1. Democrats believed people are the ultimate source of good government, and to benefit from it, people had to be united through common tradition, language and loyalties
Belief
1. Every nation has the right to exist in freedom and to develop its character and spirit
2. Free nation → Unity of people
3. Cultural identity → political identity
4. Love of nation and liberty of individual overlapped
Down side
1. Ideas of national superiority and national mission that could lead to conflict

French Utopian Socialism

They thought changes in economy is splitting communities and creates selfish individuals, more focus on the community
Further reorganization of society
- Government should rationally organize the economy
Rich and poor must be more equal economically
- The industrial revolution made a bigger class difference
Private property should be strictly regulated by government
- Replaced by community or state ownership
Marriage was another form of prostitution

Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1700-1825)

Social organization
“Parasites”: the court, the aristocracy, lawyers, churchmen
“Doers”: Scientists, engineers, industrialists

The “doers” must carefully plan the economy and guide it forward

Charles Fourier
1. Made “Utopian” communities
2. Extremely critical of middle class
3. Called for the abolition of marriage, a form of prostitution
  - Free the women

Birth of Marxian Socialism
1. Karl Marx
  1. Published the Communist Manifesto in 1848 with Freidrich Engels, the bible of socialism
  2. Looked forward to emancipation of women and abolition of family (Fourier)
  3. Lower class should fight back with violent revolution for their equality
  4. Power should go to the worker/lower class, class breakdown

Romanticism

Literatures + Arts
Enriched European culture
Revolt against Classicism and the Enlightenment

Characteristics
1. Emotional exuberance
2. Unrestrained imagination
3. Spontaneousness in both art and personal life
4. Suicide, duels to death, madness, and strange illnesses NOT uncommon among romanticists
5. Driven by sense of unlimited universe
6. Yearning for the unattained, the unknown, the unknowable
Music
1. While composers of the 18th century stayed within well-defined structures, Romantic composers experienced with different styles and instruments
2. Famous composers include Ludwig van Beethoven, and Chopin
Beliefs
1. Growth of modern industry is destroying their beloved nature and human personality
2. Some romantics found moving power in the new industrial landscape
3. Fascinated by color and diversity, imagination turned to history
  1. Art of change over time
Relationship with Nationalism
1. Reinforced each other
  1. Seeking unique greatness in each people

Reforms and Revolutions

Liberalism & Nationalism & Socialism vs Conservatism
Tensions build up

National Liberation in Greece
1. Greece was dominated by Ottoman Turks. Desire for independence grew. Revolt in 1821
2. Although many people – Great Powers – were opposed to any kind of revolution, but many Europeans were on the Greek's side because many of the were fascinated by Greek art
3. Great Britain, France, and Russia finally declared Independence of Greece in 1830
Liberal Reform in Great Britain
1. 18th Century Great Britain
  1. anyone could own land if they had money
  2. Basic civil rights for all were balanced depending on one's social class
  3. Only 6% of the population was able to vote
2. Corn Law
  1. Corn Law restricted foreign grain imports. During war against France, Great Britain experienced a shortage of grain. Price of grain rose which only benefited landowners. If grains were to be imported from Eastern Europe, it would benefit everybody. Afraid to lose their profit, aristocracy made the Parliament to pass a law that prohibited the importation of grain unless price at home rose to an improvable level
  2. Lead to unemployment and protest by urban laborers
3. The Reform Bill of 1832
  1. House of Commons gained more power
  2. New industrial areas gained representation in the commons
  3. Number of votes increased by 50%
4. “People's Charter” of 1838 and Chartist movement
  1. Demand for universal male suffrage
  2. Anti-corn law league, for more jobs and cheap food
  3. Potato crop fail in Ireland in 1845
  4. Repeal of corn law in 1846
5. The Ten Hours Act of 1847
  1. Limited workday for women and children to 10 hours
  2. Healthy competition between aristocrats and middle class for support of working class
6. Potato Crop Fail in Ireland
  1. 1845, 1846, 1848, and 1851
  2. Many people left the country
  3. People died of starvation
Revolutions in France
1. Louis XVIII's Constitutional Charter of 1814
  1. Economic and social gains made by middle and lower class were fully protected
  2. Intellectual and artistic freedom
  3. Only about 100,00 people out of total population of 30 million could vote
2. Charles X
  1. Try to reorganize the country and failed
    - Censorship of press
    - Took away voting rights of upper middle class
Louis Philippe
1. Vote was extended to 170,000
2. Disappointment of republicans, democrats, social reformers, and lower class grew
1840
1. Revolt in Paris against the monarchy
First French Republic
1. Truly popular and democratic republic
2. Gave every adult male right to vote
3. Freed all slaves in French colonies
4. Abolition of death penalty
Liberal vs Radical Republicans
1. Liberals
  - Universal male suffrage is their ultimate goal
  - Opposed further radical measures
Radical
- Committed to some kind of socialism

Most French citizens were afraid of socialism (since many of them owned land)
Majority of Constituent Assembly members were firmly committed to republic and opposed socialism
Members of workshop were leaning towards socialism ideas. Government dissolved the national workshop in Paris and gave workers opportunity to join the army
Revolted violently, working class vs Government

Failure of Revolution

Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, won the election of 1848

Austrian Empire in 1848

Began in Hungary
1. Nationalist Hungarians demanded national autonomy, full civil liberties, and universal suffrage
2. Metternich fled to London
3. Old, absolute order was collapsing

Prussia and Frankfurt Assembly

Working class demand series of democratic, vaguely socialistic demands
Elected Prussian Constituent Assembly met in Germany to write Constitution
Attempt to unit the Germans by Prussian Empire had failed

Nation Building in France, Italy, and Germany

Prosperity throughout 1850's and 1860's
Found new and effective organizing principle

Louis Napoleon in France
1. Nationalism can flourish in dictatorial states that are conservative
2. Louis Napoleon showed how government could reconcile popular and conservative forces in an authoritarian nationalism.
3. Received three times as many votes than other presidential candidates
  1. Uncle Napoleon Bonaparte
  2. Support of middle and lower class
4. Represent people and support them economically
  1. Serve both poor and rich
  2. Appeal to people as a strong, trustworthy leader
5. in 1851, National Assembly failed to change the constitution so he could run for second term
  1. Illegally seized power in coup d'état
  2. His action was legalized, and 97% voted to make Louis Napoleon a hereditary Emperor of France
6. Success (1850's)
  1. Economy
    - Investment bank
    - Railroad construction
    - Rebuilding Paris
7. Right to form unions
8. Assembly still excited even after he became the Emperor
  - Electoral system of Napoleon III began to decline in the 1860's
    - Gave more power to the Assembly

Cavour, Garibaldi, and the Unification of Italy

Italy was never a unified nation until 1860
To capture minds of citizens of Italy
1. Giuseppe Mazzini
  - Centralized democratic republic based on universal suffrage
Vincenzo Gioberti
- Called for federation of existing states under presidency of pope

Program of those who looked for leadership towards autocratic kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont

Pope Pius IX

Denounced unification and modern trent. Opposed rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty.

Count Camillo Benso di Cavour

Dominant figure of Sardinian government
Allied with Napoleon III to defeat Austria

Garibaldi didn't oppose Cavour, people of south voted to join Sardinia

New kingdom of Italy

Parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel, neither radical nor democratic
Small minority male had right to vote
Politically united, people were still divided by class system

Bismarck and German Unification

Tension between Austria and Prussia
Otto von Bismarck